A Rebel or A Prophet: Professor M.L. Daneel’s African Eco-Missiology
In his last days on earth, Prof. M. L. Daneel constantly reflected on his lifelong work among African Earthkeepers in Zimbabwe. I once asked him how he reconciled his white background, Reformed Christian identity, and African beliefs with his missionary career during the Second Chimurenga (war of liberation). He replied, “I am a rebel.” He then shared how he was often perceived as a traitor by his fellow whites and missionaries, and how his life was threatened.
Throughout his academic endeavors, Prof. Daneel self-identified as a participant-observer among those he studied. Thus, to properly understand his eco-theology, we must pay close attention to his association with African traditionalists and African Initiated Churches (AICs). Like all his theological works, his eco-missiology was highly informed by the above associations. He not only rebelled against Western colonial systems but also against academic paradigms that held African theological reflections captive. In doing so, Daneel developed a holistic and interfaith African eco-missiology that sought the liberation of all created beings—both humanity and the environment.[1]
It is important to note that climate change was not the primary driver of Daneel’s eco-missiology; rather, it was deforestation and its effects on rural communities. As a missiologist, Daneel sought appreciative inquiry with the affected communities to resolve this crisis. John Mansford Prior writes, “Through these discussions, the community commits to an inclusive approach to problem-solving and a commitment to common action. In this process, the movement shifts from what is; to what ought to be. By focusing on people’s aspirations for a better future, communities and movements develop creative innovations to face the future.”[2]
As a result, rural communities declared the Third Chimurenga (the war of liberation or the war of trees) by fostering inclusive problem-solving and collective action. This war led to the planting of over three million trees in the Masvingo area of Zimbabwe. Like in the first and second Chimurenga, African religion was central to the mobilization process.
Daneel’s outstanding knowledge of African traditional rituals and AIC theologies provided valuable tools for theologizing, which were essential for his sound eco-missiology rooted in African spirituality and practices. Aside from illustrating the relevance of African beliefs in contemporary life, his eco-theological praxis was existentially oriented; it aimed at the liberation of “not only humans, but the trees, the animals and the waters.”[3]
The strength of Daneel’s eco-missiology lies in his firsthand experience of participating in and observing traditional rituals and AIC services. His eco-theology was not abstract but applied. Although he tried to relate African eco-theology to established Western theology and doctrines, the center of his theology was African spirituality. In short, his eco-missiology was informed by African spirituality as opposed to Western thought.[4] As Magesa argues in What is not Sacred, “African spirituality is not something in the past; it is current and real.”[5] African spirituality, founded on its own sacred values, provides life with meaning. In this worldview, everything is sacred, and sacredness encompasses all reality.
Daneel perceived African spirituality as a critical part of all value systems, including human interactions with the environment. In this lifeworld, spirituality is at the core of all existence, shaping human interactions and giving life to cultural beliefs and ethical principles. Without spirituality, life ceases to have meaning. Spirituality, therefore, is the engine of all life and existence.
Daneel’s Impact on My Ecological Thought
Prof. Daneel is one of the most influential African theologians. His works have had a lasting impact on my academic life. In fact, he recommended that I enroll at Boston University for my doctoral studies. My reading of mission history with his wife, Prof. Dana Robert, once led me to consider studying David Livingstone’s “sacred regard for life” for my doctoral thesis. “Why do you want to study a dead white man?” Prof. Daneel asked with great disapproval. Through countless meetings and discussions, I returned to my African roots. I realized that African religions and spirituality could aid Christian responses to the mounting ecological catastrophe. My thesis sought to link ancestors and Jesus to earth care using the philosophy of ubuntu—the belief that we are all intricately interconnected in the web of life.[6]
Andrew Walls argues that African Christianity can guide global Christianity in countless ways. Aside from becoming the center of global Christianity, Africa now occupies the place once held by Euro-American Christianity. Walls insists that the word “martyr,” once understood as “witness” rather than as one who dies for Christ, suggests that African stories of suffering are examples of the cost of discipleship, which can inform global Christianity. He writes,
“The long history of Christ’s church in Africa provides abundant testimony to the cost of discipleship, the processes that produce Christian quality. In its witness to Christ the African church had to withstand false gods, sometimes dressed in patriotic garb. It has seen recurrent renewal movements when in danger of succumbing to easy going Christianity. It has known what Paul calls the principalities and powers and confronted them in the guise of both malign spiritual entities and malign political structures. In the light of the events of our own day, it is right to ask: Whom has God been preparing through the fires of affliction for leadership in his church at large?”[7]
Through the tree-planting movement, one can argue, God raised Daneel and African Earthkeepers to address one of the most pertinent issues of our time—the ecological crisis.
African Traditional Religions and the Environment
Daneel understood the sacredness of the natural world in African worldviews. Gods, ancestors, and spirits (mizimu) inhabit the natural world, thus making creation sacred. This does not imply that creation is divine, but rather that the divine often reveals the divine-self through creation.
Daneel incorporated this understanding into his theologizing. African rituals, he argued, are apt to heal human relationships with the land, ancestors, and the Creator. Instead of confining African religions to human salvation, as most African theologians have done, Daneel expanded this cosmic aspect of African theological pedagogy—motivating Christians and non-Christians to heal the earth through tree planting.
The traditional mukwerere/mufukudzanyika ritual (dressing the land), for example, carries ecological overtones; it exists to ensure environmental well-being. As guardians of the land, the Supreme Being, spirits, and ancestors monitor human interactions with the earth. For this reason, Daneel identified the close interconnection between the natural world, humanity, ancestors, spirits, and the Supreme Being. Identifying ancestors, spirits, and the Supreme God as guardians of the land implies that the living are simply caretakers, akin to biblical teaching.[8] In African spirituality, therefore, preservation of the earth is a paramount duty of the living–it is an expression of honoring the Creator and the ancestors. In other words, humanity is duty-bound to care for the earth out of reverence for the Creator and ancestors, whose presence is felt on earth.
This understanding demands an earth-centered spirituality—something Daneel identified. African spirituality, he believed, can bridge the religious relationship between African Christians and traditionalists. Since addressing deforestation and the wider ecological crisis requires a broader spiritual dialogue beyond Christianity, eco-missiology must be interfaith in its application—echoing Pope Francis’ call in his encyclical “Laudato si’”: an ecological invitation to every global citizen.[9]
Daneel is not the first scholar to integrate African religions into African Christianity. What sets him apart, however, is how he approached traditionalists. He didn’t employ traditional beliefs to validate Christian theology; instead, he employed traditional religion to invite traditionalists to participate in religious earth healing activities and responsibilities. In social movement terms, earth healing and deforestation aided frame alignment—Christians and traditionalists were able to identify with African spirituality as it relates to human responsibilities toward the earth. In earth healing, the gap once created by colonialism and the Christianization process was finally bridged—mobilizing both groups to see deforestation as a common enemy. In other words, Daneel viewed the ecological crisis as a spiritual problem in need of an interfaith spiritual response—one that promoted collaboration over conversion, again illuminating a new conception of Christian mission.
Daneel’s work can be described as material-enacted eco-missiology. It developed from what Meredith B. McGuire terms “lived religion.” McGuire writes,
“Lived religion consists of the practices people use to remember, share, enact, act, adapt, and create the stories out of which they live. And lived religion comes into being through the practices people use to turn these stories into everyday action.”[10]
Based on people’s enacted and acted rituals of tree planting, for example, Daneel proposed new ecological insights that are usually ignored in urban Christian contexts. For earthkeepers, the earth was not an empty space awaiting human exploitation, but the Lord’s acre and home to our ancestors, who are encountered in lived religion. In his words, “…the resurgence of ancestral and related cults as African worldviews and philosophies reassert themselves as part of Africa’s post-colonial search for its roots, it stands to reason that… ecological conservationist activities could be profitably based on religious motivation and customary earthkeeping insights.”[11]
The formation of “The Association of African Earthkeeping Churches,” “The Zimbabwe Association of Spirit Mediums,” and “The Association of Zimbabwean Traditional Ecologists” point to one grand goal–religious people of all traditions can join hands in earth healing activities. (It is important to note that African religions deserve respect from Christians—they must not be looked at as underdeveloped religions. They have their spirituality and philosophy that can inform ecological responsibility and actions. In short, they must be studied as part of the world religions.) Although most mainstream Christians and theologians view traditional mediums negatively, Daneel’s actions were not only courageous but also prophetic.
It is important to add that tree-planting rituals have glued these groups together. For this reason, tree-planting ceremonies, eco-sermons, and other traditional practices are central to understanding Daneel’s eco-missiology. These activities illustrate the interconnectedness of humanity, nature, ancestors, and the Creator in African worldviews. African rituals are ecological statements directed at Earth’s well-being. Through rituals, communities commune with the sacred to ensure community health, fertility, and land productivity. In this worldview, the health of humanity and the land is intricately interconnected.[12]
Daneel pointed out that African Earthkeepers’ self-identification with plants as brothers and sisters may share much in common with St. Francis of Assisi; yet, that relationship was born from their ritual experiences during tree-planting ceremonies. Earthkeepers learned to see trees as relatives based on the ritual experiences of the moment—adding another layer of responsibility for caring for those plants. Nancy R. Howell seems to share this perspective when she dispels the idea of human superiority over other creatures. Pointing to similarities between human and chimpanzee behaviors, she insists that humans are not separate from nature but part of the natural world.[13] Daneel shared this theological perspective; all living beings are interconnected and share a kinship with every creature, regardless of size or species.
African Traditional Religions and Daneel’s Eco-Missiology
Nwaka Chris Egbulem discusses the cosmic outlook of the African worldview, arguing that in the African lifeworld, the entire creation is sacramental. He writes, “The moon and stars, rivers and seas, hills and mountains, fish and animals, human beings; all carry the message of God’s presence. Created nature and the human environment (visible and invisible) bear the mark of goodness and godliness.”[14]
Daneel embraced this African perspective to some extent, integrating it into what Henning Wrogeman terms “intercultural” missiology. Whereas context, local people, the economy, and politics are major factors in spreading the gospel, Wrogeman argues that the success of interreligious relations and dialogue demands respect for religious traditions.[15]
Religious traditions, however, don’t exist in a vacuum. Hence, Christian mission occurs within the material environment, making nature an essential factor. This is something Daneel advocated; Christology ought to be cosmic, as the wounded earth is the body of Christ. However, he extended this belief to include ancestors, who, like Christ, are the default guardians of the land—thereby creating an African theology that relates humanity to the entire creation. This theology appeals to both Christians and traditionalists. By planting ecotheology in African cosmology, Daneel didn’t just appeal to Christians but also to non-Christians. We are all kin and kith in creation and in responsibilities. For Christians, this carries an extra responsibility. Christ’s reign demands the liberation of the earth, not by dominium terrae, but by acts of healing, tending, and, above all, the restoration of the wounded earth. Tree planting is thus an act of healing. This theological vision is enacted in green rituals and liturgies.
African theologians have long asserted the unity of the God of Africa and the God of the Bible. Daneel used Trinitarian arguments to demonstrate this unity—God is the Creator and protector of crops, Christ is the Earthkeeper, and the Holy Spirit is the healer of creation.[16] Christopher J. H. Wright’s view on creation care shares this understanding: the relationship between God and all creation is covenantal. To Wright, the primary value of creation lies in glorifying God—something that grants creation both sacredness and sanctity.[17] Mindyo Sasongko compliments this argument: “the creation is good because it has received value, unity, integrity and dignity from the Creator.”[18] Whereas Sasongko advocates the birth of “ecological oriented missiology in which humanity fulfills its biblical mandated dominion,”[19] Daneel promoted a sense of brotherhood and sisterhood with creation.
Influence of African Christianity on Daneel’s Eco-Missiology
To understand Daneel’s eco-missiology, one needs to pay attention to the development of African Christianity. African theologians have long opposed the hegemony of Euro-American doctrines, advocating instead for a form of Christianity that aligns with African culture. According to Magesa, inculturation involves the contextualization the Christian faith within the African culture. In this case, genuine theologizing can only occur when religion is lived. Here, Christianity must be localized in order to become an integral part of African culture.[20] In tandem with Guder’s statement that there is “no cultureless gospel,” [21] it is critical for Christian faith to be rooted in African culture. This is what Daneel did—he applied the concept of inculturation not only in church rituals but also to address deforestation.
Daneel’s success can be attributed to the flexibility of AIC theologies. Magesa contends that missionary-founded churches adhere to Western doctrines, while AICs are more adaptable to change since they have “a wide leeway of tolerance in belief and action.”[22] The theological education received by some African earthkeepers through Daneel’s efforts, for example, is detectable in their sermons and speeches. Similarly, the Trinitarian theological outlook of African earthkeepers, which views the Triune God as the source of creation and healing, could have been influenced by Daneel; however, their flexible theological approach enabled the adaptation of ecological interpretations of rituals, biblical narratives, and traditional myths in earth healing activities.
Importantly, African religions and AICs share a common practice of healing rituals, often overlooked in mainstream Christianity. As Egbulem posits, healing is central to the African lifeworld: “The search for healing is ultimately a search for wholeness.” [23] In her discussion of healing and lived religion, McGuire asks, “’so, if we were to ask, in the contemporary context, “From what do you most want to be saved/redeemed/protected?” many people–religious and non-religious alike–would be likely to name illness, debilitates old age, pain or dying.” She adds, “Lived religion is, for many people, immediately connected with the well-being of their bodies and minds, because they do not experience their spiritual lives as separate from their physical and mental/emotional lives.”[24] Indeed, in Africa, most people are likely to turn to religion to address both physical and mental and emotional aspects of their lives. This observation is central to African spirituality: healing is married to religion.
Daneel’s eco-missiology, for instance, views eco-justice as an act of healing for both humanity and the earth. This understanding reflects the Fall in Genesis 3, when human sin affected the land. For this reason, African healing rituals usually carry ecological overtones. Daneel stressed this healing motif by linking earth healing to human well-being through the ministry of prophets and spirit mediums during tree-planting ceremonies.[25] In defining deforestation as wounding the earth and tree planting as healing the earth, Daneel creatively developed a multi-faith eco-missiology that linked human health to environmental well-being.
Ancestors play a key role in healing rituals. In God’s Family, God’s Earth, I argue that the ancestor cult is synonymous with the cult of “Earth since it seeks to uphold ecological balance of the ecosphere.”[26] While AIC leaders often overlook the role of ancestors in their theologies, Daneel incorporated the reverence for elders/ancestors in tree planting ceremonies. Since the relationship between ancestors and elders is complex, the role of Jesus as an ancestors appealed to both Christians and traditionalists. He writes, “Christ as the fulfillment of all ancestorhood, as the true muridzi wenyika, guardian of the land, the ‘Ancestor’ of all the universe, commissioned and empowered by the Godhead to introduce new life to all creation’”[27]
In addition, the ethic of replenishing the earth is Daneel’s gift to African and global Christianity. Despite historical challenges of colonialism, landlessness, and forced migrations, he advocated for responsible ecological resilience and consideration for future generations. By involving primary school children in tree-planting activities, for example, Daneel inculcated intergenerational ethics of environmental responsibilities and actions. Despite the emphasis placed on children as blessings from ancestors, Daneel addressed the impact of population growth on deforestation, advocating for education, access to birth control, and legislation aimed at mitigating environmental destruction:
“My suggestions have all been based on the argument that the rate of environmental destruction far exceeds the current prospect of controlled population growth and that education, birth control and related factors should be augmented by legislation if the tide is to be reversed in time.”[28]
Daneel addressed these hot issues because attentive listening to African communities. Shaped by their cyclical view of time and communal land practices, Daneel’s narrative-oriented theology prioritized addressing immediate human needs without compromising the future. Through trust-building initiatives like tree planting, Daneel practiced a mission of presence that fostered community relationships and earth care.
One of the most important values that Daneel possessed is ubuntu—the ethical belief that we exist together in the bundle of life. His relationships with AIC leaders, prophets, and traditional authorities not only demonstrate his commitment to interfaith dialogue but also reflect his authentic humanity. His acceptance into the sacred shrine of the Mwari cult speaks to this value. He recounted to me his acceptance into Matonjeni—to hear the voice of Mwari at the Matopo Hills.[29]
“I had to wait and wait and wait. I was about to give up. But one day, the eagle that had finished capturing the chicken in Matonjeni was flying around. “You see that Chapungu” the High Priest said, “it has finished our birds.” I took my gun and aimed at it. I then shot at it, and it came down—and dropped where the High Priest was seated. That changed everything—I became mafuranhunzi Gumbo—shooter of flies. Above all, it was taken as a sign from Mwari—I was able to enter the shrine and listen to Mwari.”
The eagle incident at Matonjeni signified divine approval of Daneel’s presence at the shrine, suggesting the sacramental nature of creation in African spirituality, in which creation serves as a conduit for divine interactions and visibilities.
Daneel’s Ecological Insights
In my countless discussions with Professor Daneel, here are some ecological insights he left me to ponder:
Importance of Myths in Eco-missiology
According to John Archer, myths function “collectively” in people’s memories and are often political. Archer writes,
“[myths] have much to do with establishing the role and place of the citizen in society, and even organizing the ways citizens conduct daily life. In this sense, the crucial role of myth is often to sustain the relationship between the citizen, the broader culture, and social and political institutions.”[30]
Although Archer is writing about the myth of housing market in America, shared myths are critical to social mobilization. The Chimurenga (the liberation war) has traumatic overtones, yet Daneel reframed this myth in his prognostic presentation of deforestation. He presented efforts to address deforestation as another Chimurenga—motivating people to feel like they were part of the mythical and historical Chimurenga to liberate their land. Since the groups shared common myths and beliefs about creation—seeing creation as divinely infused—his motivational alignment of earthkeeping through the myth of Chimurenga avoided the often complex theories associated with academic approaches to earth care. Instead, his eco-missiology was grounded in the lived religion of ordinary people, stressing sacred myths (in the Bible and Zimbabwean culture) connected to the land
Rethinking African Liberation Theology
African liberation theology has traditionally focused on church activities, often sidelining the role of Christianity in daily life. Unlike South African black theology, which has played a pivotal role in liberation struggles, African theology’s influence on post-independence Africa has been limited. However, Daneel demonstrated that African liberation theology can be appropriated to address the ongoing environmental crises.
As inhabitants of the earth, we all have a shared responsibility to care for creation. Christian mission, known as “missio Creatoris,” should be comprehensive, encompassing the liberation of the whole creation. The cries of the poor, and the cry of the earth, are interconnected. As Pope Francis rightly noted, a true ecological approach must embrace an eco-social perspective; to “hear both the cry of the earth and the cry of the poor.”[31] Eco-missiology should reform anthropocentric theologies, liturgies, and theories if it is to confront the ongoing ecological crisis. We all have a collective duty to protect creation. We are active agents of eco-social justice and participants in God’s liberating love.
Intercultural Eco-missiology
If Christianity is a global religion, eco-missiology should be cross-cultural too. Daneel employed African ideas to create practical ethical practices for earth care. Christian earth care should be adapted to local contexts, considering local traditions and past events. Our God is the God of history; in Africa, ecological issues related to YHWH must be viewed through African historical lenses, while also taking historical injustices into account.
Eco-missiology must be both intercultural and inclusive. This need is especially evident in Africa, where traditional beliefs play a significant role in shaping views on environmental responsibilities and action. Daneel’s research is an example. Western and African philosophies once integrated can create practical earth care ethics that align with diverse cultural backgrounds.
Stephen A. Jurovics writes,
“Our latitude with respect to the treatment of the natural world requires us to see each member (human, fish, animal, tree, mustard seed) as created by God and see each constraint relevant to our faith as a cord that potentially connects us personally to the divine and to the part of creation affected by the constraint.”[32]
Inculturation as Ecological Responsibility
The concept of inculturation has been used to Africanize Christian liturgy. We should not, however, ignore that Christian worship involves addressing ecological problems. Jurovics writes that the Bible “teaches that the land belongs to God and that its use must be commensurate with the holiness of its owner.”[33]
Daneel empowered rural Africans to attach holiness to the trees and all creatures. As active participants in the mission of the Creator, their actions qualified as applied African liberation theology. The growing ecological crisis should inform how we do mission and theology, inviting us to witness to God’s love for all creation. In this shared mission, there are no winners or losers; we are in this together.
Engagement with the World for Eco-praxis
Christian mission must engage with the world in a way that recognizes the cosmic nature of the Creator’s mission. The value of creation lies in worshipping the Creator, with its instrumental value to humanity being secondary. Wright cautions against solely viewing the earth in terms of its usefulness to us. The earth’s value, he forcefully argues, is in bringing glory to God.”[34] Put differently, eco-missiology must promote and uphold the earth’s intrinsic value, acknowledging creation as an active participant in glorifying God. A paradigm shift is needed if nature is to fulfill this role in God’s mission. We must accept that, when it comes to the earth, we are mere servants of the Creator.
Spirituality in Planting and Harvest
In traditional African culture, planting and harvesting are spiritual practices that connect individuals to their environment. Christian mission should promote ecological rituals, as they are essential for life. Daneel’s tree planting ritual aligned with African cosmic spirituality that led to an interfaith and ecumenical movement of tree planting. The Church should incorporate planting rituals as a way of participating in God’s creation of new life on earth.
Interfaith and Ecumenical Eco-missiology
Daneel’s eco-missiology embraced cooperation among faiths, promoting respectful coexistence rather than conversion. It combined traditional beliefs about nature and the environment with Christian teachings on healing the earth. In caring for the earth, unity of purpose overrides religious differences. This unity is evident in joint efforts for earth care by religious leaders such as the Archbishop of Canterbury, Pope Francis, and Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, as well as organizations like the World Council of Churches and the Lausanne Movement. Christian advocacy for earth care can potentially promote positive interfaith dialogue and strengthen Christian unity.
A Luta Continua
Daneel’s unfinished research was on the efforts of Mbuya Juliana, a traditional woman medium in Zimbabwe who is re-creating new traditional sacred groves. Daneel viewed the destruction of sacred groves (murambatemwa) as mindless assaults on gods and ancestors. “I felt deep hurt and growing anger as I observed the slow destruction of the green mountain fortress,” which he argues is “the epitome of human hubris in the face of the ultimate forces of life.” [35] Other scholars havd recognized the importance of sacred groves for community-based conservation in Africa.[36] It is vital to note that African traditions are essential alongside scientific approaches to combat deforestation and the ecological crisis at large. The recreation of African sacred groves is another indication of the enduring influence of African religion in contemporary Africa. African governments and scholars should include these sacred groves in conservation efforts instead of disregarding them.
Conclusion
Daneel’s eco-missiology focused on the idea that the earth is God’s mission field, where Christian mission takes place. He believed that every space is sacred ground, belonging to God. Accordingly, there is no place where we are not on God’s property.[37] Christ is the one who liberates, redeems, heals, and protects the entire created order, as stated in Colossians 1:20. Therefore, Christ is considered the supreme ancestor, the ultimate healer, and the guardian of the land.
While colonialism blamed Africans for soil erosion and deforestation, Daneel criticized the landlessness caused by colonialism and its negative effects on both the land and the poor. Nonetheless, he stressed the importance of earthkeeping, regardless of poverty or historical burdens. In Zimbabwe, this involved planting trees and accepting human responsibility for deforestation.
Daneel argued for a sincere and introspective approach to African spirituality and Christian mission, rejecting an anthropocentric interpretation of both African theology and the Bible. As a rebel, he believed that radical paradigms are necessary for earth care, demanding a departure from established traditional missiological approaches. Collaboration with all community cultures, including former rivals, is crucial in addressing environmental challenges.
Many scholars have used Daneel’s ideas without always giving him credit, possibly due to his background as a white scholar conducting field research among Africans. Nonetheless, his deep knowledge of African theological and missiological themes sets him apart.
Daneel envisioned the African Earthkeepers’ Union, drawing on grassroots communities in rural and urban areas. While this Union never materialized, the current ecological crisis in Africa calls for a renewed focus on this idea. A new movement dedicated to environmental conservation is needed, one that incorporates eco-missiology and mission work. Embracing local religio-cultural contexts and fostering a love for nature are essential for addressing biophobia and promoting earth care.
Wright is correct—earth care “is a prophetic opportunity for the church.”[38] Pointing to the Hebrew Prophets and Jesus, Wright argues that prophets addressed the contemporary issues of their time, making them unpopular due to their scorching relevance. In short, they were rebels—and so was Daneel to African and global Christianity.
Farewell Son of the Soil,
Farewell Muchakata,
Among the great African ancestors,
African trees will always sing,
Our protector in silence lies,
Awaiting Bishop Moses to arise,
To dance to the drums of Matonjeni
When Mwari speaks from the rocks
A fight for the trees
Is our fight for life!
By: Kapya Kaoma[39]
Footnotes
[1] M. L. Daneel, African Earthkeepers: Wholistic Interfaith Mission (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2001).
[2] John Mansford Prior, “Practical Theology and Mission Studies,” In Kim, Kirsteen, Knud Jørgensen, and Alison Fitchett Climenhaga, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Mission Studies. First edition,165-183. (Oxford: Oxford University Press: 2022), 177.
[3] M. L. Daneel, African Earthkeepers: Interfaith Mission in Earth-Care, v.1 1st ed. (Pretoria: UNISA Press, 1998), 104.
[4] Daneel, African Earthkeepers, 100.
[5] Laurenti Magesa, What Is Not Sacred?: African Spirituality (Maryknoll: Orbis Books. 2013), 15.
[6] Kapya Kaoma, Ubuntu, Jesus, and Earth: Integrating African Religion and Christianity in Ecological Ethics (Boston University, 2010).
[7] Andrew F. Walls, Crossing Cultural Frontiers: Studies in the History of World Christianity. Edited by Mark R. Gornik. (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2017), 90.
[8] M. L. Daneel, “Healing the Earth: Traditional and Christian Initiatives in Southern Africa” (Part II), Journal for the Study of Religion 6, no. 2 (1993): 3–28, 22.
[9] Pope Francis, Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’ of the Holy Father Francis on Care for Our Common Home Encyclical Letter.
https://www.vatican.va/content/dam/francesco/pdf/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si_en.pdf. Accessed July 29, 2024.
[10] Meredith B. McGuire, Lived Religion: Faith and Practice in Everyday Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press., 2008), 118.
[11] M. L. Daneel, “Healing the Earth: Traditional and Christian Initiatives in Southern Africa (Part II), Journal for the Study of Religion 6, no. 2 (1993): 3–28, 22.
[12] McGuire, Lived Religion, 129.
[13]Nancy R. Howell, “The Importance of Being Chimpanzee,” Theology and Science, Vol 1. 2.(2023): 179- 191, 189
[14] Nwaka Chris Egbulem, “Mission and Inculturation in Africa,” in Wainwright, Geoffrey, and Karen B. Westerfield Tucker, eds., The Oxford History of Christian Worship, 678-69 (Oxford: Oxford University Press., 2006), 681.
[15] Henning Wrogeman, “Mission Studies as Intercultural Theology,” in Kim, Kirsteen, Knud Jørgensen, and Alison Fitchett Climenhaga, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Mission Studies. First edition. 145-163, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022), 147.
[16] Daneel, African Earthkeepers, v.1, 106.
[17] Wright, Mission of God, 402.
[18] Wright, Mission of God, 93.
[19] Nindyo Sasongko, “The Dearest Freshness Deep Down Things: Environmental Justice and Mission in Ecumenical Perspective,” International Review of Mission, 105.1 (402), (July 2016): 86-103, 9
[20] Laurenti Magesa, Anatomy of Inculturation: Transforming the Church in Africa, (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis 2004), 67.
[21] Darrell L. Guder, Missional Church: A Vision for the Sending of the Church in North America (Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub., 1998),114.
[22] Magesa, however, observes that this situation is likely to change due to the exposure to theological education to which future leadership is exposed. Anatomy of Inculturation, 170. For example, Daneel spent many years providing theological education to AICs leaders in Zimbabwe.
[23] Egbulem, “Mission and Inculturation in Africa,” 687.
[24] McGuire, Lived Religion, 137.
[25] M. L. Daneel, “Healing the Earth: Traditional and Christian Initiatives in Southern Africa” (Part II), Journal for the Study of Religion 6, no. 2 (1993), 3–28.
[26] Kapya J, Kaoma, God’s Family, God’s Earth: Christian Ecological Ethics of Ubuntu (Zomba, Malawi: Kachere. Series, 2013), 53.
[27] Marthinus L. Daneel, “Christian Mission and Earth Care: An African Case Study.” In Kapya J. Kaoma, ed. Creation Care in Christian Mission 29, 15–30, (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock Publishers 2016), 27.
[28] Daneel, African Earthkeepers, V2., 306.
[29] M. L. Daneel, The God of the Matopo Hills: An Essay on the Mwari Cult in Rhodesia (The Hague: Mouton, 1970).
[30]John Archer, “The Resilience of Myth: The Politics of the American Dream,” Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review 25, no. 2 (2014): 7–21, 8. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24347714.
[31] Francis, Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’, Par. 49.
[32] Stephen A., Jurovics, and J. Matthew Sleeth. Hospitable Planet: Faith, Action, and Climate Change (New York: Morehouse Publishing. 2016), 72.
[33] Jurovics, Hospitable Planet, 61.
[34] Wright, Mission of God, 399.
[35] Daneel, African Earthkeepers: Wholistic Interfaith Mission, 9.
[36] Michael J., Sheridan, and Celia Nyamweru, African Sacred Groves: Ecological Dynamics & Social Change (Oxford: James Currey, 2008).
[37] Wright, Mission of God, 403.
[38] Wright, Mission of God, 417
[39] A tribute to my mentor, professor, and friend M. L. Daneel. I was blessed to have him in my life. May his soul rest in peace and rise in glory. Highly humbled to write this piece—I don’t deserve to.
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